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Net Work Alan Winstanley This month we celebrate 60 years of Practical Electronics and recount the tale of how the magazine came about. Net Work also gives an account of Britain’s often overlooked influence when the Internet’s foundations were first taking shape. A decade ago, I wrote a two-part piece celebrating fifty years of Practical Electronics, Britain’s first hobbyist magazine dedicated to exploiting transistor and integrated circuits. This month’s edition sees us reaching our diamond jubilee, as the November 2024 issue marks sixty years of successful publication. The November 1964 issue was released in an era that embraced the race to the Moon; many developments in modern electronics owe their origins to the 1960s space program. The roots of Practical Electronics date much further back, though, to an age when semiconductors were inconceivable and fabricating a DIY ‘wireless’ meant scratch-building a radio receiver using high-voltage valves (vacuum tubes), eagerly following the skeleton plans printed in newsletters and magazines of the time. At the turn of last century, the impact of radio communications was as momentous as the Internet, email and social media have been in today’s digital age. Radio constructors were eager to ‘tune in’ to the new medium and they relished the challenge of using their practical and theoretical skills to build radio receivers and aerial arrays of every description. Primitive earpieces hooked to home- made receivers buzzed and crackled to the sound of radio transmissions that would eventually be broadcast from all around the world. The earliest radio magazine I’m aware of first appeared over 110 years ago. The Marconigraph of April 1911 was published in London by none other than Marconi Wireless themselves. They marked the new era of radio with these opening lines: “Seventeen years ago [in 1894] the idea of wireless telegraphy for the transmission of wireless messages through space was regarded as an utter impossibility, yet within a year of that date the ‘impossible’ was achieved, the outcome of which is the present day world-wide system of wireless communication by land and sea.” The Marconigraph aimed to acquaint the ‘lay reader’ with the possibilities of “this most marvellous new invention” and the journal vividly illustrated the explosive growth in radio transmissions being witnessed in every corner of the world. Early experiments with aircraft-based radio reception were also described. Marconi’s magazine became the respected title Wireless World a few years later. One London-based publisher, George Newnes Ltd, started printing a literary newsletter in the late 19th century that was a precursor to journalism and some of the earliest British newspaper titles. In my collection are some original Hobbies and Practical Wireless magazines from 1932, published by Geo. Newnes, which contained a very broad array of projects catering for wholesome DIY hobbies, including woodwork and fretwork, stamp collecting, model-making and German-made ‘Trix’ – an early form of Meccano that for budding ‘home engineers’ was a sensation at the time. This early hobby magazine, printed on newsprint in three spot-colours, included skeleton plans for multi-valve wireless receivers, three-valve circuits being the most popular. An astonishing range of every conceivable radio component was sold by a thriving mail order industry. Just to complete the picture, amusing ‘small ads’ in H&PW featured freelyavailable air pistols and fearsomelooking catapults, exclaiming that “No boy is a boy without these!” Shiny new bicycles were advertised at a cost of £3 15s as well. A multitude of magazines The rise of Camm’s ‘Practicals’ Hobbies and Practical Wireless magazine, published in 1932 by George Newnes Ltd. With fascination in radio broadcasting intensifying, there soon appeared a multitude of magazines for radio constructors to choose from, such as Popular Wireless, a weekly title for listeners and hobbyists that in 1922 promised readers “the world’s latest hobby fully explained”. Many titles appeared weekly, but as post-war paper shortages severely inhibited the production of magazines and newspapers, some were forced to adopt a monthly timetable instead. Other titles included Radio Constructor, which became Radio & Electronics Constructor that many of us saw jostling for position on bustling newsstands up until the 1980s. Editor’s note: the first issue of Wireless Weekly was published in Australia on the 4th of August 1922, eventually leading to Silicon Chip. In the 1930s, a Newnes editor, the now legendary F.J. Camm, started a range of ‘Practical’ magazine titles aimed at the many hands-on, sleevesup home mechanics, motorists and wireless enthusiasts who took such pursuits in their stride. Practical Wireless would become a stand-alone title, and F.J. Camm was sympathetic about catering for those entering the world of hobby wireless construction for the first time. In the launch issue of September 24th 1932, he promised: “Simplicity of Treatment AND, of great importance, particular care will be taken in presenting the contents in clear and simple language. Highly technical terms will be dispensed with wherever simple description can be employed, and diagrams will be prepared and explained so as to be readily understood. Thus the reader with a modest technical 4 Practical Electronics | November | 2024 Toying with the idea of homing in on this new market, George Newnes Ltd. considered creating a new magazine with a working title of Practical Electronics and Hi Fi. In 1962, Newnes recruited ex-RAF wireless operator and former EMI technical publications staff member Fred Bennett, who duly started work at Newnes supposedly as a subeditor on Practical Wireless, learning how the publishing industry worked. Fred wondered to himself whether his role was really necessary, though. “Even I could see that there was hardly any need for additional staff”, he reflected many years later. Was something brewing on the electronics magazine front? Pondering Practical Electronics Newnes’ ‘Practicals’ magazines captured the post-war zeitgeist of British house­ holders, hobbyists and motorists. Mixing mortar and climbing scaffolding was no problem for enthusiastic DIYers! knowledge, or even the keen amateur, will find PRACTICAL WIRELESS appeals to him as well as to the reader with a sound technical knowledge.” Such re-assurance was at odds with Camm’s views of Do-It-Yourself enthusiasts, though. Some years later, at a time when some householders could tackle even quite ambitious homebuilding and repair projects for themselves – including building an entire house! – a novice wrote to a newspaper lamenting the lack of guidance that was available to budding DIYers. He hoped that projects and articles might expand more on the fundamental skills needed to complete basic tasks. In a brutal July 1958 Editorial in another ‘Practical’ title that he edited, The Practical Householder, Camm branded those without the practical skills as “simpletons”, adding that “for those who are mentally incapable of learning, nothing can be done. There are dunderheads in all walks of life.” Charming! Practical Wireless became a very familiar sight on British newsstands; sales reached 120,000 copies a month as interest in radio technology continued unabated. However, another branch of spaceage technology was emerging that offered ‘solid-state’ solutions for many other electronic applications, not just radio. The transistor had arrived on the electronics scene. New circuit techniques were fast being developed and more magazine pages were also needed to cater for an abundance of advertisers, such was the hobbyist’s appetite for constructing electronic projects using these new semiconductor devices. Practical Electronics | November | 2024 Later that year, Managing Editor Bert Collins, the successor to F.J. Camm (who died in 1959 aged just 63), offered Fred the opportunity to work on a new magazine that would complement Practical Wireless. The new title had been nailed down simply as Practical Electronics, although a US magazine of the same name was first published five years earlier, in 1957. Published by Fawcett of New York, it offered designs for a pocket-size transistor radio and transistor checker, amongst other projects. It’s likely that this new venture was why Fred had been recruited by Newnes all along. Fred jumped at the chance, and set about designing a pilot issue of Practical Electronics from scratch, while still working on the PW desk. Fred described how he then spent a lengthy and anxious year waiting for feedback about his proposals when, suddenly, at the end of 1963, Bert Collins gave him the green light. An all-new Practical Electronics would launch before the end of the following year. With a new office location to accommodate their team, PE would be independent of its wireless forebear. The first November 1964 issue of Practical Electronics was a success, with 115,000 copies being sold. Reflecting on the matter many years later, Fred had nothing but praise for the management at George Newnes Ltd, whose foresight recognised the potential of newly-emerging applied semiconductor electronics. The magazine set the pace in Britain for producing advanced, professionally­ presented and sometimes highly complex hobby electronic projects. It was largely unchallenged for many years. Wikipedia has more details on George Newnes Ltd at https://w.wiki/B3pS With publication of Practical Electronics in full swing in a very vibrant market, Fred realised that they had “begun to tap an inexhaustible source of talent... It was as though electronics enthusiasts had been anticipating our appearance.” Such was the embarrassment of riches submitted by highly skilled and immensely talented electronics engineers and professionals of the time that the magazine never faced a shortage of material. This was also true of the readers’ ‘circuit ideas’ column called Ingenuity Unlimited, which first appeared in May 1965 and was soon heavily over-subscribed. It inspired me to submit my own little article in the mid 1970s, earning me £5 pocket money! PE also rallied to support novices or less gifted readers. Fred Bennett was keen to engage with beginners in electronics and encourage them to learn and broaden their skills and knowledge. There was plenty to challenge the hobbyist, with a wide variety of digital and analog projects, tutorials, news briefs and those all-important mailorder adverts packed into every issue. In 1968, Fred offered a young Mike Kenward a job as a technical sub-editor. Mike would eventually assume the role of Editor and publisher many years later, establishing Wimborne Publishing Ltd for the purpose. The October 1974 edition celebrated the magazine’s first decade, acknowledging that the integrated circuit had since become “universally popular” with constructors pursuing their hobby. An Everyday experience Fred developed a sister magazine title in 1971 – Everyday Electronics – written by the same team. It was aimed at beginners and younger readers looking to build The first edition of Practical Electronics in November 1964 catered for constructors seeking to build a wide range of semiconductor-based projects. 5 Everyday Electronics was designed to offer simpler projects and tutorials for beginners and younger hobbyists. less-challenging electronic circuits and gadgets. Coincidentally, the June 1967 issue of Radio-Electronics, published in the USA by Gernsback, was a special edition showcasing ‘Everyday Electronics’. ‘Teach-In’ tutorials appeared in EE right from the outset as well, and were instrumental in helping readers to develop and expand their skills and knowledge. As a testimony to Fred’s vision, we still publish a dedicated Teach-In series to this very day. On a personal note, I once had the pleasure of speaking with Fred Bennett. I owe my entire electronics publishing career to the support and generous encouragement that he gave me during my teenage hobbyist years. You can see my efforts in PDF format at https://pemag.au/link/ac0z Fred passed away in 2006, aged 85. A tribute written by Mike Kenward appeared on our legacy website, which is still online, at http://www.epemag. com/vault/0306.htm Both titles changed hands and went their separate ways for a while, then merging into Everyday Practical Electronics (EPE) before finally settling down as PE once again when Editor Matt Pulzer acquired the title. This year, Practical Electronics opened a new chapter in its story when Australia’s Silicon Chip took over at the wheel; it’s a perfect fit as PE had been publishing Silicon Chip projects since January 2006 after our home-grown capacity to source, edit, publish and technically support hobbyist projects had finally run its course. I previously described in more detail 6 the often tumultuous journey of the magazines in my 50 Years celebration in 2014, which can still be downloaded as PDFs from https://www.epemag. com/resources.html Additional resources describing the history of, and people behind, both titles were written by former Editor Mike Kenward and currently remain online at our legacy website; see https://www. epemag.com/epe-history.html I suppose I’m memorialising the story of this magazine for the benefit of future readers and contributors, in case these finer details are eventually lost in time. With sixty years of publishing now behind us, and with dedicated and committed staff at Silicon Chip now firmly established at the helm, there’s plenty for the Practical Electronics reader to look forward to. Modern electronics has become accessible in a way that Marconi never envisaged more than a century ago. Hopefully it’s not tempting fate to say that I’ll look forward to seeing our Platinum anniversary in 2034! veloping a ‘survivable’ communications network for military use. The US non-profit RAND Corporation (short for Research & Development) benefited from receiving open-ended funding for researching military projects like these, so money was no object. Credit goes to a young RAND engineer, Paul Baran, for designing an early form of distributed communications or ‘message switching’ system for the military that could withstand an enemy hit. There is more background to this at https://www. rand.org/about/history/baran.html According to Janet Abbate, Baran had no confidence in the contractors’ ability to build it and so, rather than risk being discredited, he scrapped the proposals. Nevertheless, his ideas were widely published and would become very influential in the coming years. However, US scientists and academics didn’t understand the need for ‘survivability’ at the time, so they weren’t interested in resilient, bomb-proof (literally) message switching. Thus, the concept went largely undeveloped. The Internet’s early days The white heat of technology A one-page Net Work column first appeared in the August 1996 issue and a URL appeared on the cover shortly afterwards. Now seems a good time to re-visit the roots of the technology that gave rise to this column to begin with. In July 1996, when online search and reference resources were very thin on the ground, I wrote a feature in Everyday Practical Electronics titled “The Internet – What’s in it for you?” That article spelled out the story of the Internet thus far. You can still download a PDF scan for free from https://pemag.au/Shop/3/7367 No-one could know, however, how the Internet would ultimately dominate every corner of our society twenty or thirty years later. Much has been documented about the creation of the Internet itself, so I won’t repeat all the details again. A book entitled “Inventing the Internet” by Janet Abbate (ISBN 0-262-01172-7, 1999, MIT Press, 264pp) is a rare and thoroughly researched but highly readable academic work. It offers a detailed and granular account describing the often turbulent development of the Internet. It’s one of the best reference works that I’ve come across and I’ll draw from some of its material for the remainder of this month’s article. Moreover, it recounts the often overlooked contributions that Britain’s unsung scientists and developers made when the Internet’s foundations were being laid. The launch of Sputnik by the USSR in 1957 galvanised America into de- Here in Britain, Harold Wilson’s Labour government championed the drive for new technologies and industries. His famous ‘white heat of technology’ conference speech in 1963 hoped to inspire the country into embracing a scientific revolution, dispensing with old restrictive practices that hampered the country’s economic growth. The British Library website hosts a recording of the speech at https:// pemag.au/link/ac10 “Inventing the Internet” by Janet Abbate offers a detailed insight into the Internet’s evolution, highlighting the influence of the NPL and is an easy-enough read. Practical Electronics | November | 2024 Janet Abbate makes the point that the critical difference in Wilson’s approach, compared with the USA, was that Britain under Labour would fund new technology to stimulate commercial and industrial production and boost the economy, rather than use it for military applications. In contrast, in 1960s America, key university centres of technological excellence were created and given an open-ended design brief. They were tasked with investigating and solving problems in building the nation’s defence systems. It was emphasised that there would be no limitations to the research and there would be no project-specificity either. Doubtless, this approach encouraging ‘blue sky thinking’ would bring out the best of their students and academics. Ultimately, it gave rise to the ARPANET computer communications network. It would be unfair to contrast this with Britain’s own research programmes. For starters, the US government’s nearlimitless funding dwarfed anything available in post-war Britain. Secondly, the US approach was that system designers were building their own network for their own use, but Britain was heading in a different direction, focussing on developing user-friendly computer systems for commercial use instead. A major part of Britain’s computer research was carried out by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), which had something of a shoestring budget. One celebrated NPL computing engineer from Wales, Donald Davies, was instrumental in devising a new method of transmitting digital data that did not clog up and slow expensive telephone lines. He was working on the concept of splitting messages into smaller parts, to transmit data over long distances via a distributed network. Davies is credited with coining the term ‘packet switching’. Unknown to him at the time, another form of ‘packet switching’ had previously been developed in the USA by Paul Baran, but the military application was not in the public domain. Expensive timeshares In an era of very expensive mainframe computers, a system of ‘batch processing’ of data was used to keep them continually operating. The concept of ‘timesharing’ was then devised to spread a computer’s workload between multiple users. This enabled computers to run several programs in a multiplexing fashion, making the best of expensive computer time. Davies, still working on a very tight NPL budget, learned of timesharing during a visit to the USA in 1965. He saw it as a way of maximising costly computer resources rather than being a ‘survivable’ datacomms system. In 1966, ARPANET was just the germ of an idea and it seems the developers were originally unaware of Paul Baran’s pioneering work. In 1967, NPL’s Roger Scantlebury presented a paper in the USA describing their work on packet switching, and they explained NPL’s ongoing research into building its own network, called the Mark I. It is clear that NPL’s own research influenced the design of the American ARPANET. Furthermore, British NPL scientists are credited with ‘joining the dots’ that brought RAND’s original work and ARPANET’s developers together to create a resilient packetswitching network. Donald Davies is also recognised as the proponent of a dedicated network interface computer. As early network trials commenced in the USA, the first ‘router’ (a Honeywell IMP – Interface Message Processor) was developed. Built like a tank, the wardrobe-size ‘peripheral’ needed a helicopter and forklift truck to install it at UCLA on time. Donald Davies also convinced the Americans that network bandwidth would be the key to everything so, according to Abbate, ARPANET’s Larry Roberts duly upped the network spec. to a dizzying 56 kilobits per second, the maximum possible over analog phone lines (as every dial-up modem user of the 1990s would later discover). A scaled-down network Donald Davies of the National Physical Laboratory describes the concept of packet switching in a 1998 TV interview for the Open University (from BBC TV). Practical Electronics | November | 2024 Back home in Britain, Donald Davies remained keen to develop a network timesharing client that anybody could use, but he struggled with meagre budgets and a lack of resources. Furthermore, the General Post Office (GPO), which operated Britain’s analog phone system at the time, wasn’t interested in Roger Scantlebury of the NPL explained their work on packet switching to an American audience (BBC/Open University). digital data communications anyway. The British government dropped the ball. NPL proceeded to build Mark I, its own scaled-down network, using a Honeywell 516 computer. Very unusually, and showing great foresight, system resources were attached to the network where they could be accessed by network clients, rather than being hosted by isolated client computers. An upgraded Mark II network followed which, astonishingly, ran from 1973 to 1986. Eventually, the GPO relented and after four years launched a packetswitching network in 1977. However, its next-generation system would use American hardware. As the American network continued to grow, otherwise-incompatible University sites connected together using the new common protocol of TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol). A mobile data experiment based in Hawaii proved successful, and a satellite link with Norway followed, initially exchanging seismic data. The University College London connected with Norway shortly afterwards. In the late 1980s, the ARPANET was finally pensioned off when control of its infrastructure was transferred to the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET). The Internet would then be ‘demilitarised’ and commercialised. Much of the outstanding work done at the National Physical Laboratory by Donald Davies and his team was technically ahead of its time but, lacking funds, it could never compete with America’s fully-funded military ARPANET. Davies died in 2000, and we’ll never know what the ‘net might have looked like if the National Physical Laboratory had managed to design a messaging system on a much grander scale. At least Britain’s hand was on the tiller when the idea of packet switching networks was first floated nearly sixty years ago. As always, you can email the author PE at alan<at>epemag.net 7